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Both of them are starting-points in some way: and perhaps the one for us symptoms 6 days before period 200mcg cytotec with amex, the other absolutely symptoms in spanish order 200 mcg cytotec visa, or symptoms uterine fibroids buy generic cytotec 100mcg line, on the one hand, the end and the other a starting-point of ours. Up to some point, then, we are capable of studying things causally, taking our starting-point from sense-perceptions in each case; but when we proceed to the extreme and primary entities, we are no longer capable of doing so, either owing to the fact that they do not have a cause, or through our lack of strength to look, one would say, at the brightest things’ (¨€ kaª toÓtì Šporon £ oÉ ç†€di»n ge e«pe±n, m”cri p»sou kaª t©nwn zhtht”on a«t©av ¾mo©wv ›n te to±v a«sqhto±v kaª nohto±vá ¡ g‡r e«v Špeiron ¾d¼v –n ˆmfo±n ˆllotr©a kaª ˆnairoÓsa t¼ frone±n. For example, Diocles’ way of expressing himself in section 8 certainly reminds us of Aristotle, who also often uses the combination of ‘in a certain way’ (tr»pon tin†) and ‘look like’ (›oike) in order to qualify the similarities he sees between different entities or phenomena; the combination ˆrca±v ›oike (‘look like starting-points’) is also attested several times in Aristotle’s works. Similar searches for combinations of tr»pon tina and a form of ›oika yielded the following results: Aristotle, Gen. For pretty much all animals in some way seem to produce grubs to start with; 94 Hippocratic Corpus and Diocles of Carystus against claims one and two sounds very Aristotelian (although he does not use the typically Aristotelian terminology of kaqì aËt», kat‡ sumbebhk»v, or the qualifier ¨€). The advice not to take unknown, disputed or implausible items as starting-points is perfectly in keeping with the principles and the practice of Aristotelian dialectic. For once the fig is closed neither dew nor drizzle can make it miscarry, and it is dew and drizzle that get warmed and cause the drop, as with the pomegranate blossom. That these are responsible (and they are cited by some people) is indicated by what happens: there is more dropping of the fruit when light rain follows its first appearance’ ( ïEoike dì e­per ¡ Šnoixiv poie± tŸn –pimonŸn eÎpnoi†n te kaª ˆp”rasin poioÓsa paraplžsion tr»pon tin‡ [t¼] sumba±non kaª –pª tän –n A«gÅptw€ sukam©nwná ˆll‡ toÓto diamfisbhtoÓs© tinev Þv Šrì oÉk ˆno©gousin o¬ y¦nev ˆll‡ summÅein poioÓsin Âtan e«sdÅwsin Âqen kaª tŸn a«t©an –stªn –k toÓ –nant©ou f”rein Þv toÅtou c†rin –rinazom”nwná –‡n g‡r summÅwsin oÎqì ¡ dr»sov oÎte t‡ yak†dia dÅnatai diafqe©rein Ëfì æn ˆpop©ptousi diugrain»menoi ãsper kaª o¬ kÅtinoi tän çoäná Âti d• taÓta a­tia mhnÅei t¼ sumba±non Á dŸ kaª l”gous© tinevá ˆpob†llousi g‡r mŽllon Ëdat©wn –piginom”nwn;tr. It seems that of the two opposites, namely sweet and bitter, the sweet is the origin (as it were) of good flavour, whereas the bitter is the origin of fragrance and in some way the bitter is to a greater extent the origin of fragrance. For it is hard to find any fragrant thing that is not bitter, but many non-sweet things have excellent flavour’ ( v –pª pŽn d• t† gì eÎosma p†nta pikr†á toÅtou m•n oÔn tŸn a«t©an Ìsteron lekt”on. I am aware that linguistic resemblances do not prove intellectual exchange or even similarity of doctrine (for the abuse of linguistic ‘evidence’ by Jaeger see von Staden (1992) 234–7) and that the Aristotelian corpus is so much larger than the Hippocratic that the significance of the fact that only occurrences in Aristotle and Theophrastus are found may be doubted (the computer also found Plato, Phaedo 100 e 6–a 1: ­swv m•n oÔn æ€ e«k†zw tr»pon tin‡ oÉk ›oiken, but this passage is not quite comparable with the Diocles fragment). Diocles of Carystus on the method of dietetics 95 Connections of Diocles’ views with Aristotle’s have, of course, been made by earlier scholars, especially by Werner Jaeger, in whose picture of Diocles as a pupil of Aristotle fragment 176 played a central part. He argued that the fragment could not have been written without the influence of the great Stagirite on the Carystian physician, and from this and other considerations drew far-reaching conclusions concerning Diocles’ date. Yet this should not make us a priori hostile to any attempt to associate Diocles with the Lyceum. The resemblance is not so much between Diocles’ ar- gument that knowledge of the cause is often not necessary for practical purposes and similar statements found in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics (which Jaeger emphasised) – it has been shown that what is at issue in those passages is rather different from what Diocles is concerned with. While, to my knowledge, no parallels of this idea can be found in the Hippocratic Corpus, it clearly re- sembles statements in Aristotle and Theophrastus (see note 41) to the effect that the search for causes should stop somewhere and that further analy- sis even ‘destroys’ our understanding. It will probably remain a matter of dispute whether this resemblance is actually to be interpreted as evidence of intellectual exchange between Diocles, Aristotle and Theophrastus. It should be noted, however, that Jaeger’s views have been setting the agenda for Dioclean studies for quite a long time and are sometimes still determining the kind of questions asked by scholars who are at the same time in doubt concerning the validity of his conclusions (see, e. For a plea for a study of Diocles in his own right (with the question of his date and his being ‘influenced’ by this or that particular ‘school’ being kept away from the study of the individual fragments as long as possible) see van der Eijk (1993b) and (2001a) xxi–xxxviii. Gottschalk (private correspondence) points out to me that the doctrine of the limits of causal explanation, which is a very sophisticated piece of philosophy, is presented by Aristotle as his invention, whereas Diocles alludes to it very briefly: ‘his sentence presupposes a knowledge of Aristotle or something very like it’. The latter are either – in the case of real undemonstrable principles such as definitions or logical postulates – concerned with the avoidance of an infinite regress or with the consideration that within the limits of a particular branch of study some things should be accepted as starting-points, the demonstra- tion of which belongs to another discipline: the ignorance of this is seen by them as a sign of ‘being uneducated’ (ˆpaideus©a). While Aristotle’s warnings against pursuing causal analysis too far in these latter contexts look like methodological prescriptions based on considerations of fruit- fulness and economy (one should not ask for a cause here because it is useless – although it may be possible to state one), Diocles’ point is that in the field of dietetics many things simply do not allow of explanation, because when pursuing the search for causes too far, one passes the level of the ‘whole nature’ of a foodstuff and loses the connection with the actual explanandum. On the other hand, it is not unlikely that some sort of contact between Diocles and the Lyceum took place. Diocles enjoyed a good reputation in Athens – although our source for this does not specify in what times he did. It has been doubted whether this should be taken as applying to the Carystian physician, seeing that the name Diocles was very common in Greek and that several persons named Diocles in fourth- century Athens are known from literary and epigraphical sources. The fact that he is credited by Theophrastus with an opinion on a mineralogical topic is a weak argument, which is based on doubtful presuppositions concerning a ‘division of labour’ between the sciences. Diocles may have had various interests, just as Theophrastus himself, or Aristotle, or the authors of such 48 (Pseudo-)Vindicianus, On the Seed 2: ‘Diocles, a follower of Hippocrates, whom the Athenians gave the name of younger Hippocrates’ (Diocles, sectator Hippocratis, quem Athenienses iuniorem Hippocratem vocaverunt).

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